Defining Latinos Over Time

“Latino” is a widely accepted term for people, largely Spanish speaking, who come from North, Central, and South America countries including Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. Throughout history, there have been many different terms used to describe what we today refer to as “Latinos,” and these categories have evolved over time. Many of these different terms were utilized by the US Census Bureau in their population counts. Coming up with population estimates for the Latino population for this study involved utilizing many different datasets that utilize terminology that evolved between decades. For example, being of Latino origin as conceptualized today would have the following terminology in older census counts:

• Spanish (1970)
• Spanish/Hispanic (1980, 1990)
• Spanish/Hispanic/Latino (2000)
• Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish (2010, 2020)

Latino Population Undercounts

A 1991 ethnographic study of Pilsen (Elias-Olivares & Farr 1991) sponsored by the Center for Survey Methods Research, identified the following issues that can lead to improper information and/or population undercounts in census data collection.

1. Of those interviewed it was found that most respondents self-reported oral bilingualism, very few reported being totally monolingual. Most reported as having functional literacy skills in either Spanish or English. Most respondents identified no issues with the English language forms, but some clarification was requested. However, more clarification and coaching for Spanish forms was needed. The study identified that census forms in Spanish were too technical, and respondents preferred more informal Spanish variants. These factors may have contributed to incorrect information being collected.
2. Many respondents did not identify with the options provided in the race category and most chose “other race.”
3. Residents had an initial distrust of the census process, expecting that the information could be used against them. Although the researchers reported that the study helped to improve respondents’ trust of the census process.

Dowling (2014) identifies the best way to identify Latinos in census collection. Dowling claims that Latinos may not want to identify themselves as racially distinct from the dominant white majority. “While testing various questionnaire formats in the mid-1990s found that Latinos were less likely to check the “Hispanic/Latino box when it was listed as a racial option vs. an ethnic one” (Dowling 128).

In a White House press release (Orvis 2024) from March 2024, the Federal Office of Management and Budget revised the standards for collecting information on race and ethnicity. Most importantly, the release stated that updated standards included,” using one combined question for race and ethnicity, and encouraging respondents to select as many options as apply to how they identify.” This will allow for greater disaggregation in future census collection.

Census Latino Questions Over Time

1970

1970 was the first time a Latino identity question was added via a question about origin or descent.

• The question text was: “Is this person’s origin or descent – (Fill one circle).”
• The options were: “Mexican,” “Puerto Rican,” “Cuban,” “Central or South American,” “Other Spanish,” “No, none of these.”

1980

In 1980, “Spanish/Hispanic” was added to the question about origin or descent.

• The question text was: “Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent? – (Fill one circle).”
• The options were: “No (Not Spanish/Hispanic),” “Yes, Mexican, Mexican-Amer., Chicano,” “Yes, Puerto Rican,” “Yes, Cuban,” and “Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic.”
• The instructions included alongside were: A person is of Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent if the person “identifies” his or her ancestry with one of the listed groups, that is Mexican, Puerto Rican, etc. Origin or descent (ancestry) may be viewed as the nationality group, the lineage, or country in which the person or the person’s parents or ancestors were born.
• The census identified “other Spanish/Hispanic” as: “those whose origins are from Spain or Spanish-speaking countries of Central or South America, or persons identifying themselves generally as Spanish, Spanish American, Hispano, Latino, etc.” (“Central or South American” was removed and there was no write-in option.)

1990

In 1990, the word “descent” was dropped from the origin or descent questions.

• The question read: “Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin?” (Dropping the word “descent” from the 1980 version).
• The options were: “No (Not Spanish/Hispanic),” “Yes, Mexican, Mexican-Amer., Chicano,” “Yes, Puerto Rican,” “Yes, Cuban,” and “Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic.”
• A write-in option was added in 1990 after “Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic”: (Print one group, for example: Argentinian, Columbian, Dominican, Nicaraguan, Salvadorian, Spaniard, and so on.)

2000

In 2000, the word “origin” from the 1990 version or the origin or descent question was dropped and Latino was added for the first time.

• The question was: “Is this person Spanish/Hispanic/Latino? Mark “X” the “No” box if not Spanish/Hispanic/Latino.”
• The options were: “No, not Spanish/Hispanic/Latino,” “Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano,” “Yes, Puerto Rican,” “Yes, Cuban,” “Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino – Print Group” with a space to write in. (The write-in option was dropped from the question.)

2010

In 2010, the origin question was changed.

• The question was: “Is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?”
• The options were: “No, not of Hispanic, Latino, Spanish origin,” “Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano,” “Yes, Puerto Rican,” “Yes, Cuban,” and “Yes, other Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin – Print origin, for example, Argentinean, Colombian, Nicaraguan, Salvadoran, Spaniard, and so on” with space to write in.

2020

In 2022, the origin question remained consistent with 2010.

• The question read: “Is this person of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?”
• The options were: “No, not of Hispanic, Latino, Spanish origin,” “Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano,” “Yes, Puerto Rican,” “Yes, Cuban,” and “Yes, other Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin – Print, for example, Salvadoran, Dominican, Columbian, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Ecuadorian, etc.” with space to write in.

Other Notes

Since origin and descent questions were not asked for Latino populations before 1970, place of birth of individuals and the country of birth of parents is the only consistent method of identifying Latinos from 1880 through 1960.

In 1930, there was an attempt to make Mexico a race. This attempt failed for many reasons including push back from the Mexican Government. As a result it was not attempted again.

1920-1970

Data on the total Hispanic or Latino population at the census tract level from the 1920-1970 decennial censuses was unavailable. To estimate the distribution of the total Hispanic or Latino population at the census tract level for each decade, we developed an equation using available population data related to a subset of the Hispanic or Latino population to come up with a population distribution then allocate the total population of Chicago to the census tracts where the sample of Latinos were present.

The available data related to the Hispanic or Latino population at the census tract level varies by decade from 1920 to 1970 and was collected from IPUMS NHGIS through an API, as detailed below:

• 1920: White Foreign Born Population by Nation of Origin, including one category related to the Hispanic or Latino population (Mexican)
• 1930: Data is not available
• 1940: Foreign Born White Population by Sex by Nativity, including three nativities related to the Hispanic or Latino population (Mexico, Cuba, Central America)
• 1950: Country of Birth of the Foreign-Born White Population, including one country related to the Hispanic or Latino population (Mexico)
• 1960: Total Puerto Rican or Spanish Surname Population, comprising individuals who are born in Puerto Rico, persons of Puerto Rican parentage, and Puerto Rican nonwhites
• 1970: Spanish Indicator, with five Spanish categories of the question on “origin or descent”: Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish origin or descent

The following table presents the tables and variables collected from IPUMS NHGIS:

Table 1: Tables and Variables for Hispanic or Latino Population Collected from IPUMS NHGIS (1920-1970)

The total Hispanic or Latino population in the City of Chicago by decade was collected from IPUMS USA1, as shown in the table below:

Table 2: Total Hispanic or Latino Population in Chicago by Decade (1920-1970)

Source: IPUMS USA, 1920-1970

Equation for Estimating Latino Population at Census Tract Level:

Where:

• Estimated Latino (tp): Estimated the percentage of the Latino population relative to the total population at the census tract level
• Real Latino Pop (cp): Total Latino population in the city of Chicago
• Hispanic or Latino Proxy (tp): For 1920, 1940, and 1950, the available data for each nativity/country related to the Hispanic or Latino population were summed up. For 1960, it is the Total Puerto Rican or Spanish Surname Population. For 1970, it includes the Total Puerto Rican or Spanish Surname Population and any of the five Spanish categories of the question on “origin or descent” considered at the census tract level.
• Hispanic or Latino Proxy (cp): For 1920, 1940, and 1950, the available data for each nativity/country related to the Hispanic or Latino population were summed up. For 1960, it is the Total Puerto Rican or Spanish Surname Population. For 1970, it includes the Total Puerto Rican or Spanish Surname Population and any of the five Spanish categories of the question on “origin or descent” considered for the city of Chicago.
• Total population (tp): Total population at the census tract level.

References

Dowling, J. A. 2014. Mexican Americans and the Question of Race, 1st ed. The University of Texas Press, pp. 127-33.

Elias-Olivares, L., and M. Farr. 1991. Sociolinguistic Analysis of Mexican-American Patterns of Non-Response to Census Questionnaires. Ethnographic Exploratory Research (Report #16).

IPUMS USA. n.d. “Hispanic Origin.” Race, Ethnicity, and Nativity Variables List. https://usa.ipums.org/usa-action/variables/HISPAN#comparability_section.

Orvis, K. 2024. “OMB Publishes Revisions to Statistical Policy Directive No. 15: Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity.” The White House, Press Release, https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/briefing-room/2024/03/28/omb-publishes-revisions-to-statistical-policy-directive-no-15-standards-for-maintaining-collecting-and-presenting-federal-data-on-race-and-ethnicity/.